A Porcine Model of Acute Respiratory Failure with a Continuous Infusion of Oleic Acid.

This protocol outlines an acute respiratory distress model utilizing centrally administered oleic acid infusion in Yorkshire pigs. Prior to experimentation, each pig underwent general anesthesia, endotracheal intubation, and mechanical ventilation, and was equipped with bilateral jugular vein central vascular access catheters. Oleic acid was administered through a dedicated pulmonary artery catheter at a rate of 0.2 mL/kg/h. The infusion lasted for 60-120 min, inducing respiratory distress. Throughout the experiment, various parameters including heart rate, respiratory rate, arterial blood pressure, central venous pressure, pulmonary artery pressure, pulmonary capillary wedge pressure, end-tidal carbon dioxide, peak airway pressures, and plateau pressures were monitored. Around the 60 min mark, decreases in partial arterial oxygen pressure (PaO2) and fraction of oxygen-saturated hemoglobin (SpO2) were observed. Periodic hemodynamic instability, accompanied by acute increases in pulmonary artery pressures, occurred during the infusion. Post-infusion, histological analysis of the lung parenchyma revealed changes indicative of parenchymal damage and acute disease processes, confirming the effectiveness of the model in simulating acute respiratory decompensation.

The Cell Permeant Phosphopetpide mimetic of VASP Alleviates Motor Function Deficits After Experimental Subarachnoid Hemorrhage.

Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) due to the rupture of an intracranial aneurysm leads to delayed vasospasm and neuroischemia, which can result in profound neurologic deficit and death. Therapeutic options after SAH are currently limited to hemodynamic optimization and nimodipine, which have limited clinical efficacy. Experimental SAH results in cerebral vasospasm have demonstrated the downregulation of nitric oxide (NO)-protein kinase G (PKG) signaling elements. VP3 is a novel cell permeant phosphopeptide mimetic of VASP, a substrate of PKG and an actin-associated protein that modulates vasorelaxation in vascular smooth muscle cells. In this study, we determined that intravenous administration of high doses of VP3 did not induce systemic hypotension in rats except at the maximal soluble dose, implying that VP3 is well-tolerated and has a wide therapeutic window. Using a single cisterna magna injection rat model of SAH, we demonstrated that intravenous administration of low-dose VP3 after SAH improved neurologic deficits for up to 14 days as determined by the rotarod test. These findings suggest that strategies aimed at targeting the cerebral vasculature with VP3 may improve neurologic deficits associated with SAH.

Adult and Pediatric Porcine Model of Acute Volume Overload.

This protocol describes an acute volume overload porcine model for adult Yorkshire pigs and piglets. Both swine ages undergo general anesthesia, endotracheal intubation, and mechanical ventilation. A central venous catheter and an arterial catheter are placed via surgical cutdown in the external jugular vein and carotid artery, respectively. A pulmonary artery catheter is placed through an introducer sheath of the central venous catheter. PlasmaLyte crystalloid solution is then administered at a rate of 100 mL/min in adult pigs and at 20 mL/kg boluses over 10 min in piglets. Hypervolemia is achieved either at 15% decrease in cardiac output or at 5 L in adult pigs and at 500 mL in piglets. Hemodynamic data, such as heart rate, respiratory rate, end-tidal carbon dioxide, fraction of oxygen-saturated hemoglobin, arterial blood pressure, central venous pressure, pulmonary artery pressure, pulmonary capillary wedge pressure, partial arterial oxygen pressure, lactate, pH, base excess, and pulmonary artery fraction of oxygen-saturated hemoglobin, are monitored during experimentation. Preliminary data observed with this model has demonstrated statistically significant changes and strong linear regressions between central hemodynamic parameters and acute volume overload in adult pigs. Only pulmonary capillary wedge pressure demonstrated both a linear regression and a statistical significance to acute volume overload in piglets. These models can aid scientists in the discovery of age-appropriate therapeutic and monitoring strategies to understand and prevent acute volume overload.

Blocking P2X7 receptor with AZ 10606120 exacerbates vascular hyperpermeability and inflammation in murine polymicrobial sepsis.

Sepsis is a devastating disease with high morbidity and mortality and no specific treatments. The pathophysiology of sepsis involves a hyperinflammatory response and release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), including adenosine triphosphate (ATP), from activated and dying cells. Purinergic receptors activated by ATP have gained attention for their roles in sepsis, which can be pro- or anti-inflammatory depending on the context. Current data regarding the role of ATP-specific purinergic receptor P2X7 (P2X7R) in vascular function and inflammation during sepsis are conflicting, and its role on the endothelium has not been well characterized. In this study, we hypothesized that the P2X7R antagonist AZ 10606120 (AZ106) would prevent endothelial dysfunction during sepsis. As proof of concept, we first demonstrated the ability of AZ106 (10 µM) to prevent endothelial dysfunction in intact rat aorta in response to IL-1ß, an inflammatory mediator upregulated during sepsis. Likewise, blocking P2X7R with AZ106 (10 µg/g) reduced the impairment of endothelial-dependent relaxation in mice subjected to intraperitoneal injection of cecal slurry (CS), a model of polymicrobial sepsis. However, contrary to our hypothesis, AZ106 did not improve microvascular permeability or injury, lung apoptosis, or illness severity in mice subjected to CS. Instead, AZ106 elevated spleen bacterial burden and circulating inflammatory markers. In conclusion, antagonism of P2X7R signaling during sepsis appears to disrupt the balance between its roles in inflammatory, antimicrobial, and vascular function.

Therapeutic MK2 inhibition blocks pathological vascular smooth muscle cell phenotype switch.

Vascular procedures, such as stenting, angioplasty, and bypass grafting, often fail due to intimal hyperplasia (IH), wherein contractile vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) dedifferentiate to synthetic VSMCs, which are highly proliferative, migratory, and fibrotic. Previous studies suggest MAPK-activated protein kinase 2 (MK2) inhibition may limit VSMC proliferation and IH, although the molecular mechanism underlying the observation remains unclear. We demonstrated here that MK2 inhibition blocked the molecular program of contractile to synthetic dedifferentiation and mitigated IH development. Molecular markers of the VSMC contractile phenotype were sustained over time in culture in rat primary VSMCs treated with potent, long-lasting MK2 inhibitory peptide nanopolyplexes (MK2i-NPs), a result supported in human saphenous vein specimens cultured ex vivo. RNA-Seq of MK2i-NP-treated primary human VSMCs revealed programmatic switching toward a contractile VSMC gene expression profile, increasing expression of antiinflammatory and contractile-associated genes while lowering expression of proinflammatory, promigratory, and synthetic phenotype-associated genes. Finally, these results were confirmed using an in vivo rabbit vein graft model where brief, intraoperative treatment with MK2i-NPs decreased IH and synthetic phenotype markers while preserving contractile proteins. These results support further development of MK2i-NPs as a therapy for blocking VSMC phenotype switch and IH associated with cardiovascular procedures.

Vasorelaxing cell permeant phosphopeptide mimetics for subarachnoid hemorrhage.

Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) due to rupture of an intracranial aneurysm leads to vasospasm resulting in delayed cerebral ischemia. Therapeutic options are currently limited to hemodynamic optimization and nimodipine, which have marginal clinical efficacy. Nitric oxide (NO) modulates cerebral blood flow through activation of the cGMP-Protein Kinase G (PKG) pathway. Our hypothesis is that SAH results in downregulation of signaling components in the NO-PKG pathway which could explain why treatments for vasospasm targeting this pathway lack efficacy and that treatment with a cell permeant phosphopeptide mimetic of downstream effector prevents delayed vasospasm after SAH. Using a rat endovascular perforation model, reduced levels of NO-PKG pathway molecules were confirmed. Additionally, it was determined that expression and phosphorylation of a PKG substrate: Vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (VASP) was downregulated. A family of cell permeant phosphomimetic of VASP (VP) was wasdesigned and shown to have vasorelaxing property that is synergistic with nimodipine in intact vascular tissuesex vivo. Hence, treatment targeting the downstream effector of the NO signaling pathway, VASP, may bypass receptors and signaling elements leading to vasorelaxation and that treatment with VP can be explored as a therapeutic strategy for SAH induced vasospasm and ameliorate neurological deficits.

A cell permeant phosphopeptide mimetic of Niban inhibits p38 MAPK and restores endothelial function after injury.

Vascular injury leads to membrane disruption, ATP release, and endothelial dysfunction. Increases in the phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) and decreases in the phosphorylation of Niban, a protein implicated in ER stress and apoptosis, are associated with vascular injury. A cell permeant phosphopeptide mimetic of Niban (NiPp) was generated. The effects of NiPp in restoring endothelial function were determined ex vivo using intact rat aortic tissue (RA) after pharmacological activation of p38 MAPK and also in multiple clinically relevant injury models. Anisomycin (Aniso) increased p38 MAPK phosphorylation and reduced endothelial-dependent relaxation in RA. Treatment with NiPp prevented Ansio-induced reduction in endothelial function and increases in p38 MAPK phosphorylation. NiPp treatment also restored endothelial function after stretch injury (subfailure stretch), treatment with acidic Normal Saline (NS), and P2X7R activation with 2'(3')-O-(4-Benzoylbenzoyl)adenosine 5'-triphosphate (BzATP). Aged, diseased, human saphenous vein (HSV) remnants obtained from patients undergoing coronary bypass surgical procedures have impaired endothelial function. Treatment of these HSV segments with NiPp improved endothelial-dependent relaxation. Kinome screening experiments indicated that NiPp inhibits p38 MAPK. These data demonstrate that p38 MAPK and Niban signaling have a role in endothelial function, particularly in response to injury. Niban may represent an endogenous regulator of p38 MAPK activation. The NiPp peptide may serve as an experimental tool to further elucidate p38 MAPK regulation and as a potential therapeutic for endothelial dysfunction.

Cell-free hemoglobin increases inflammation, lung apoptosis, and microvascular permeability in murine polymicrobial sepsis.

Increased endothelial permeability is central to the pathogenesis of sepsis and leads to organ dysfunction and death but the endogenous mechanisms that drive increased endothelial permeability are not completely understood. We previously reported that cell-free hemoglobin (CFH), elevated in 80% of patients with sepsis, increases lung microvascular permeability in an ex vivo human lung model and cultured endothelial cells. In this study, we augmented a murine model of polymicrobial sepsis with elevated circulating CFH to test the hypothesis that CFH increases microvascular endothelial permeability by inducing endothelial apoptosis. Mice were treated with an intraperitoneal injection of cecal slurry with or without a single intravenous injection of CFH. Severity of illness, mortality, systemic and lung inflammation, endothelial injury and dysfunction and lung apoptosis were measured at selected time points. We found that CFH added to CS increased sepsis mortality, plasma inflammatory cytokines as well as lung apoptosis, edema and inflammation without affecting large vessel reactivity or vascular injury marker concentrations. These results suggest that CFH is an endogenous mediator of increased endothelial permeability and apoptosis in sepsis and may be a promising therapeutic target.

An anionic, endosome-escaping polymer to potentiate intracellular delivery of cationic peptides, biomacromolecules, and nanoparticles.

Peptides and biologics provide unique opportunities to modulate intracellular targets not druggable by conventional small molecules. Most peptides and biologics are fused with cationic uptake moieties or formulated into nanoparticles to facilitate delivery, but these systems typically lack potency due to low uptake and/or entrapment and degradation in endolysosomal compartments. Because most delivery reagents comprise cationic lipids or polymers, there is a lack of reagents specifically optimized to deliver cationic cargo. Herein, we demonstrate the utility of the cytocompatible polymer poly(propylacrylic acid) (PPAA) to potentiate intracellular delivery of cationic biomacromolecules and nano-formulations. This approach demonstrates superior efficacy over all marketed peptide delivery reagents and enhances delivery of nucleic acids and gene editing ribonucleoproteins (RNPs) formulated with both commercially-available and our own custom-synthesized cationic polymer delivery reagents. These results demonstrate the broad potential of PPAA to serve as a platform reagent for the intracellular delivery of cationic cargo.

Normal Saline solutions cause endothelial dysfunction through loss of membrane integrity, ATP release, and inflammatory responses mediated by P2X7R/p38 MAPK/MK2 signaling pathways.

Resuscitation with 0.9% Normal Saline (NS), a non-buffered acidic solution, leads to increased morbidity and mortality in the critically ill. The goal of this study was to determine the molecular mechanisms of endothelial injury after exposure to NS. The hypothesis of this investigation is that exposure of endothelium to NS would lead to loss of cell membrane integrity, resulting in release of ATP, activation of the purinergic receptor (P2X7R), and subsequent activation of stress activated signaling pathways and inflammation. Human saphenous vein endothelial cells (HSVEC) incubated in NS, but not buffered electrolyte solution (Plasma-Lyte, PL), exhibited abnormal morphology and increased release of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and decreased transendothelial resistance (TEER), suggesting loss of membrane integrity. Incubation of intact rat aorta (RA) or human saphenous vein in NS but not PL led to impaired endothelial-dependent relaxation which was ameliorated by apyrase (hydrolyzes ATP) or SB203580 (p38 MAPK inhibitor). Exposure of HSVEC to NS but not PL led to activation of p38 MAPK and its downstream substrate, MAPKAP kinase 2 (MK2). Treatment of HSVEC with exogenous ATP led to interleukin 1ß (IL-1ß) release and increased vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM) expression. Treatment of RA with IL-1ß led to impaired endothelial relaxation. IL-1ß treatment of HSVEC led to increases in p38 MAPK and MK2 phosphorylation, and increased levels of arginase II. Incubation of porcine saphenous vein (PSV) in PL with pH adjusted to 6.0 or less also led to impaired endothelial function, suggesting that the acidic nature of NS is what contributes to endothelial dysfunction. Volume overload resuscitation in a porcine model after hemorrhage with NS, but not PL, led to acidosis and impaired endothelial function. These data suggest that endothelial dysfunction caused by exposure to acidic, non-buffered NS is associated with loss of membrane integrity, release of ATP, and is modulated by P2X7R-mediated inflammatory responses.

Nanotechnology Enabled Modulation of Signaling Pathways Affects Physiologic Responses in Intact Vascular Tissue.

IMPACT STATEMENT: Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is associated with vasospasm that is refractory to traditional vasodilators, and inhibition of vasospasm after SAH remains a large unmet clinical need. SAH causes changes in the phosphorylation state of the small heat shock proteins (HSPs), HSP20 and HSP27, in the vasospastic vessels. In this study, the levels of HSP27 and HSP20 were manipulated using nanotechnology to mimic the intracellular phenotype of SAH-induced vasospasm, and the effect of this manipulation was tested on vasomotor responses in intact tissues. This work provides insight into potential therapeutic targets for the development of more effective treatments for SAH induced vasospasm.

Excipients for the lyoprotection of MAPKAP kinase 2 inhibitory peptide nano-polyplexes.

Herein, excipients are investigated to ameliorate the deleterious effects of lyophilization on peptide-polymer nano-polyplex (NP) morphology, cellular uptake, and bioactivity. The NPs are a previously-described platform technology for intracellular peptide delivery and are formulated from a cationic therapeutic peptide and the anionic, pH-responsive, endosomolytic polymer poly(propylacrylic acid) (PPAA). These NPs are effective when formulated and immediately used for delivery into cells and tissue, but they are not amenable to reconstitution following storage as a lyophilized powder due to aggregation. To develop a lyophilized NP format that facilitates longer-term storage and ease of use, MAPKAP kinase 2 inhibitory peptide-based NPs (MK2i-NPs) were prepared in the presence of a range of concentrations of the excipients sucrose, trehalose, and lactosucrose prior to lyophilization and storage. All excipients improved particle morphology post-lyophilization and significantly improved MK2i-NP uptake in human coronary artery smooth muscle cells relative to lyophilized NPs without excipient. In particular, MK2i-NPs lyophilized with 300 mM lactosucrose as an excipient demonstrated a 5.23 fold increase in cellular uptake (p < 0.001), a 2.52 fold increase in endosomal disruption (p < 0.05), and a 2.39 fold increase in ex vivo bioactivity (p < 0.01) compared to MK2i-NPs lyophilized without excipients. In sum, these data suggest that addition of excipients, particularly lactosucrose, maintains and even improves the uptake and therapeutic efficacy of peptide-polymer NPs post-lyophilization relative to freshly-made formulations. Thus, the use of excipients as lyoprotectants is a promising approach for the long-term storage of biotherapeutic NPs and poises this NP platform for clinical translation.

Vascular surgical stretch injury leads to activation of P2X7 receptors and impaired endothelial function.

A viable vascular endothelial layer prevents vasomotor dysfunction, thrombosis, inflammation, and intimal hyperplasia. Injury to the endothelium occurs during harvest and "back table" preparation of human saphenous vein prior to implantation as an arterial bypass conduit. A subfailure overstretch model of rat aorta was used to show that subfailure stretch injury of vascular tissue leads to impaired endothelial-dependent relaxation. Stretch-induced impaired relaxation was mitigated by treatment with purinergic P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) inhibitors, brilliant blue FCF (FCF) and A740003, or apyrase, an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of ATP. Alternatively, treatment of rat aorta with exogenous ATP or 2'(3')-O-(4-Benzoyl benzoyl)-ATP (BzATP) also impaired endothelial-dependent relaxation. Treatment of human saphenous vein endothelial cells (HSVEC) with exogenous ATP led to reduced nitric oxide production which was associated with increased phosphorylation of the stress activated protein kinase, p38 MAPK. ATP- stimulated p38 MAPK phosphorylation of HSVEC was inhibited by FCF and SB203580. Moreover, ATP inhibition of nitric oxide production in HSVEC was prevented by FCF, SB203580, L-arginine supplementation and arginase inhibition. Finally, L-arginine supplementation and arginase inhibition restored endothelial dependent relaxation after stretch injury of rat aorta. These results suggest that vascular stretch injury leads to ATP release, activation of P2X7R and p38 MAPK resulting in endothelial dysfunction due to arginase activation. Endothelial function can be restored in both ATP treated HSVEC and intact stretch injured rat aorta by P2X7 receptor inhibition with FCF or L-arginine supplementation, implicating straightforward therapeutic options for treatment of surgical vascular injury.

Limiting Injury During Saphenous Vein Graft Preparation For Coronary Arterial Bypass Prevents Metabolic Decompensation.

Standard harvest and preparation of human saphenous vein (HSV) for autologous coronary and peripheral arterial bypass procedures is associated with injury and increased oxidative stress that negatively affect graft performance. In this study we investigated the global metabolomic profiles of HSV before (unprepared; UP) and after standard vein graft preparation (AP). AP-HSV showed impaired vasomotor function that was associated with increased oxidative stress, phospholipid hydrolysis and energy depletion that are characteristic of mechanical and chemical injury. A porcine model (PSV) was utilized to validate these metabolomic changes in HSV and to determine the efficacy of an improved preparation technique (OP) using pressure-regulated distension, a non-toxic vein marker, and graft storage in buffered PlasmaLyte solution in limiting metabolic decompensation due to graft preparation. Deficits in vasomotor function and metabolic signature observed in AP-PSV could be largely mitigated with the OP procedure. These findings suggest that simple strategies aimed at reducing injury during graft harvest and preparation represents a straightforward and viable strategy to preserve conduit function and possibly improve graft patency.

Heparin-functionalized polymer graft surface eluting MK2 inhibitory peptide to improve hemocompatibility and anti-neointimal activity.

The leading cause of synthetic graft failure includes thrombotic occlusion and intimal hyperplasia at the site of vascular anastomosis. Herein, we report a co-immobilization strategy of heparin and potent anti-neointimal drug (Mitogen Activated Protein Kinase II inhibitory peptide; MK2i) by using a tyrosinase-catalyzed oxidative reaction for preventing thrombotic occlusion and neointimal formation of synthetic vascular grafts. The binding of heparin-tyramine polymer (HT) onto the polycarprolactone (PCL) surface enhanced blood compatibility with significantly reduced protein absorption (64.7% decrease) and platelet adhesion (85.6% decrease) compared to bare PCL surface. When loading MK2i, 1) the HT depot surface gained high MK2i-loading efficiency through charge-charge interaction, and 2) this depot platform enabled long-term, controlled release over 4weeks (92-272µg/mL of MK2i). The released MK2i showed significant inhibitory effects on VSMC migration through down-regulated phosphorylation of target proteins (HSP27 and CREB) associated with intimal hyperplasia. In addition, it was found that the released MK2i infiltrated into the tissue with a cumulative manner in ex vivo human saphenous vein (HSV) model. This present study demonstrates that enzymatically HT-coated surface modification is an effective strategy to induce long-term MK2i release as well as hemocompatibility, thereby improving anti-neointimal activity of synthetic vascular grafts.

P2X7R antagonism after subfailure overstretch injury of blood vessels reverses vasomotor dysfunction and prevents apoptosis.

Human saphenous vein (HSV) is harvested and prepared prior to implantation as an arterial bypass graft. Injury and the response to injury from surgical harvest and preparation trigger cascades of molecular events and contribute to graft remodeling and intimal hyperplasia. Apoptosis is an early response after implantation that contributes the development of neointimal lesions. Here, we showed that surgical harvest and preparation of HSV leads to vasomotor dysfunction, increased apoptosis and downregulation of the phosphorylation of the anti-apoptotic protein, Niban. A model of subfailure overstretch injury in rat aorta (RA) was used to demonstrate impaired vasomotor function, increased extracellular ATP (eATP) release, and increased apoptosis following pathological vascular injury. The subfailure overstretch injury was associated with activation of p38 MAPK stress pathway and decreases in the phosphorylation of the anti-apoptotic protein Niban. Treatment of RA after overstretch injury with antagonists to purinergic P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) antagonists or P2X7R/pannexin (PanX1) complex, but not PanX1 alone, restored vasomotor function. Inhibitors to P2X7R and PanX1 reduced stretch-induced eATP release. P2X7R/PanX1 antagonism led to decrease in p38 MAPK phosphorylation, restoration of Niban phosphorylation and increases in the phosphorylation of the anti-apoptotic protein Akt in RA and reduced TNFα-stimulated caspase 3/7 activity in cultured rat vascular smooth muscle cells. In conclusion, inhibition of P2X7R after overstretch injury restored vasomotor function and inhibited apoptosis. Treatment with P2X7R/PanX1 complex inhibitors after harvest and preparation injury of blood vessels used for bypass conduits may prevent the subsequent response to injury that lead to apoptosis and represents a novel therapeutic approach to prevent graft failure.

Unregulated saphenous vein graft distension decreases tissue viscoelasticity.

OBJECTIVES: Unregulated intraoperative distension of human saphenous vein (SV) graft leads to supraphysiologic luminal pressures and causes acute physiologic and cellular injury to the conduit. The effect of distension on tissue viscoelasticity, a biophysical property critical to a successful graft, is not well described. In this investigation, we quantify the loss of viscoelasticity in SV deformed by distension and compare the results to tissue distended in a pressure-controlled fashion. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Unmanipulated porcine SV was used as a control or distended without regulation and distended with an in-line pressure release valve (PRV). Rings were cut from these tissues and suspended on a muscle bath. Force versus time tracings of tissue constricted with KCl (110 mM) and relaxed with sodium nitroprusside (SNP) were fit to the Hill model of viscoelasticity, using mean absolute error (MAE) and r2-goodness of fit as measures of conformity. RESULTS: One-way ANOVA analysis demonstrated that, in tissue distended manually, the MAE was significantly greater and the r2-goodness of fit was significantly lower than both undistended tissues and tissues distended with a PRV (p<0.05) in KCl-induced vasoconstriction and SNP-induced vasodilation. CONCLUSIONS: Unregulated manual distension of SV graft causes loss of viscoelasticity and such loss may be mitigated with the use of an in-line PRV.

Adenosine triphosphate as a molecular mediator of the vascular response to injury.

BACKGROUND: Human saphenous veins used for arterial bypass undergo stretch injury at the time of harvest and preimplant preparation. Vascular injury promotes intimal hyperplasia, the leading cause of graft failure, but the molecular events leading to this response are largely unknown. This study investigated adenosine triphosphate (ATP) as a potential molecular mediator in the vascular response to stretch injury, and the downstream effects of the purinergic receptor, P2X7R, and p38 MAPK activation. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A subfailure stretch rat aorta model was used to determine the effect of stretch injury on release of ATP and vasomotor responses. Stretch-injured tissues were treated with apyrase, the P2X7R antagonist, A438079, or the p38 MAPK inhibitor, SB203580, and subsequent contractile forces were measured using a muscle bath. An exogenous ATP (eATP) injury model was developed and the experiment repeated. Change in p38 MAPK phosphorylation after stretch and eATP tissue injury was determined using Western blotting. Noninjured tissue was incubated in the p38 MAPK activator, anisomycin, and subsequent contractile function and p38 MAPK phosphorylation were analyzed. RESULTS: Stretch injury was associated with release of ATP. Contractile function was decreased in tissue subjected to subfailure stretch, eATP, and anisomycin. Contractile function was restored by apyrase, P2X7R antagonism, and p38-MAPK inhibition. Stretch, eATP, and anisomycin-injured tissue demonstrated increased phosphorylation of p38 MAPK. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, these data suggest that the vascular response to stretch injury is associated with release of ATP and activation of the P2X7R/P38 MAPK pathway, resulting in contractile dysfunction. Modulation of this pathway in vein grafts after harvest and before implantation may reduce the vascular response to injury.

Calcification of Human Saphenous Vein Associated with Endothelial Dysfunction: A Pilot Histopathophysiological and Demographical Study.

While the pathophysiology and clinical significance of arterial calcifications have been studied extensively, minimal focus has been placed on venous calcification deposition. In this study, we evaluated the association between calcium deposition in human saphenous vein (HSV), endothelial function, and patient demographic risk factors. Fifty-four HSV segments were collected at the time of coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery. The presence or absence of calcium deposits was visualized using the Von Kossa staining method. Endothelial function was determined by measuring muscle tissue contraction with phenylephrine and relaxation with carbachol in a muscle bath. Additional segments of vein underwent histologic evaluation for preexisting intimal thickness and extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition. Patient demographics data were obtained through our institution's electronic medical record, with patient consent. Calcium was present in 16 of 54 samples (29.6%). Veins with calcium deposits had significantly greater intimal-to-medial thickness ratios (p = 0.0058) and increased extracellular collagen deposition (p = 0.0077). Endothelial relaxation was significantly compromised in calcified veins vs. those without calcium (p = 0.0011). Significant patient risk factors included age (p = 0.001) and preoperative serum creatinine (p = 0.017). Calcified veins can be characterized as having endothelial dysfunction with increased basal intimal thickness and increased ECM deposition. Patient risk factors for calcium deposits in veins were similar to those for arteries, namely, advanced age and kidney disease. Further studies are needed to determine the effect of preexisting vein calcification on short- and long-term graft patency.

Subfailure Overstretch Injury Leads to Reversible Functional Impairment and Purinergic P2X7 Receptor Activation in Intact Vascular Tissue.

Vascular stretch injury is associated with blunt trauma, vascular surgical procedures, and harvest of human saphenous vein for use in vascular bypass grafting. A model of subfailure overstretch in rat abdominal aorta was developed to characterize surgical vascular stretch injury. Longitudinal stretch of rat aorta was characterized ex vivo. Stretch to the haptic endpoint, where the tissues would no longer lengthen, occurred at twice the resting length. The stress produced at this length was greater than physiologic mechanical forces but well below the level of mechanical disruption. Functional responses were determined in a muscle bath, and this subfailure overstretch injury led to impaired smooth muscle function that was partially reversed by treatment with purinergic receptor (P2X7R) antagonists. These data suggest that vasomotor dysfunction caused by subfailure overstretch injury may be due to the activation of P2X7R. These studies have implications for our understanding of mechanical stretch injury of blood vessels and offer novel therapeutic opportunities.